SECTION 2: STRUCTURE

6 Underlying structure
When structuring a document, the writer needs to consider the best ways of ordering the information presented to suit the readers’ needs, and how to make that underlying structure clear. Different types of text, such as discursive, narrative or instructional, will require different approaches to their structure. Reference works that are not intended to be read sequentially have other kinds of structure again.

The mode of delivery of a publication has a strong impact on how it will be structured. Print publications have physical characteristics such as size and sequence of pages, as well as conventionally placed parts such as the table of contents, chapters and index, that allow readers to orient themselves. The writer of electronic publications cannot rely on these features and, while being able to encourage a more flexible approach to the contents, must make sure their readers do not get lost in the process.

These differences do not make the print and electronic modes incompatible, but it is important to be aware of them especially when planning documents that are intended to be published in both modes. The following paragraphs present some of the most important structural issues to consider.

6.1 Structural hierarchy
Print-delivered texts present information sequentially. The means of ordering may be thematic, procedural, alphabetical or chronological. Electronic texts can make use of short sequences for simple instructions, but are less well suited for extended sequences because it is harder for readers to locate themselves.
Ideally, electronic texts should combine depth with breadth either through a hierarchical or Web-like structure. Such designs allow the reader to follow distinct themes, while keeping sight of the overall structure of the document they are reading.

Sequential structure	Hierarchical structure	Web–like structure

6.2 Headings
The headings in a publication should be worded to give a clear indication of the subject areas covered. The heading hierarchy should be clearly indicated by consistent methods such as type weight and contrast, colour or enumeration systems, as it serves as a means of indicating the overall scope and structure of the document. No more than four levels of headings are usually necessary – any more can be confusing for a reader by making them lose sight of the larger context.

Enumeration is particularly useful in texts that are not intended to be read sequentially, as typographically based hierarchies might be overlooked by someone arriving in the middle of a section.

Headings are often hyperlinked in electronic texts to provide a pathway through particular topics. For on-screen material, the Style manual (p 138) recommends that there be a maximum of 200 words between each heading, so that readers are able to see at least one heading on their screen at any time (see para 4).

7 Segmentation of text
The paragraph is the basic unit of composition within any text. Each paragraph needs to have its own coherence. Often it will be introduced by a topic sentence, which tells the reader what it is about, and then this will be developed by accumulation of evidence, or logical argument, or some other way that holds the reader’s attention, until the end leads the reader to the next topic in the next paragraph. Careful transitions between paragraphs are crucial in showing the reader which way the argument is going or how the material is being developed, and the relation between each paragraph and the next as the writer explores various aspects or develops a linear argument.

In a print publication the length of each paragraph is variable, as long as it constitutes a coherent unit. Long paragraphs cause a problem for screen reading because of the disorientation caused by having to scroll, and the difficulties of having to read extended text on screen.

Lists can be a useful alternative as a unit of composition in both print- and electronically delivered text. They serve to highlight key points and break up the density of text with the use of white space. This allows certain material to be visually highlighted.

8 Navigation
Both print and electronic material share the need for navigational devices to show the reader how to find particular parts of a publication, how one part relates to another, and where they are within the text. Print publications provide means of searching via tables of content and indexes, which are conventionally placed at the beginning or end of the publication, and so are easy to find. They have orientational devices in the form of page numbers and running headers/footers that give information such as chapter title and author name. Electronic publications can make use of some of these devices, but present a different set of challenges for those designing and writing them.

8.1 Electronic navigation
The ability to hyperlink to locations both within and outside a document is an important feature of electronic publications. It allows the reader a great deal of flexibility and access to a wide range of information. At the same time this flexibility can create confusion – the reader might follow a link out of the document they were originally in without being aware of it. Navigational devices must therefore signpost where a reader is as well as where they can go from there. Here are some of the options that can be used to perform these functions:

• proprietary logos or other forms of identification to distinguish between different publications
  
  
• site maps that give readers an overview of the structure of a publication and links to different parts of it
  
  
• hyperlinked menus to give readers a range of related pages they can move onto
  
  
• hyperlinked text that can take readers to further information related to specific words or phrases
  
  
• navigation bars that orient the reader within a document.

Navigation bars can be of various types. They can send the reader to different points within a particular page. They can point to the next page in a sequence, or back to the homepage. Special navigation bars known as breadcrumb bars even show the route the reader has taken through the publication to their current point.



    
[illustration of Web page showing range of navigational devices]

8.2 Indexes
An index gives the reader a means of finding particular information in a publication and following up related subjects and their various aspects. The work of indexing does not begin until the page numbers are in their final form and will not be affected by any more changes in the text.

Usually the main headings (concepts, technical terms, names of people and organisations) are listed alphabetically following the word-by-word arrangement. This means that in compound words, whether hyphenated or not, each word is ordered separately. For example:

New England
New South Wales
Newcastle

The space in New England takes precedence over the c in Newcastle.

Subheadings define particular aspects of a major concept or subject area and are arranged in a new alphabetical sequence under the main heading. Indentation is used to set off subheadings and sub-subheadings.

All main headings and subheadings should begin with a lower case letter unless they are proper nouns, and should be followed by a comma and then the page reference. When there are several page references for one entry, each is followed by a comma except the last, where no punctuation is used. It is not necessary to use p and pp before the page numbers. For example:

Content
   influence of, 2–3
   questions, 185–6
   texts in, 3–5, 16

Cross-references are indicated by see and see also, which are always in lower case italics. They do not lead readers to a reference in the text but to other entries in the index. Knowing when to cross-reference and when to double index (that is, index the same page numbers at two different headings instead of using cross-references) is part of the skill of indexing.

The Style manual gives detailed information on the art and skill of indexing, including aspects of alphabetical arrangement, when and when not to use computer programs, writing an introduction to the index, deciding how many indexes to have, and contracting an indexer.

8.3 Search engines
Electronic publications can have their own kind of indexes in the form of internal search engines. These normally work on keywords within the text, so writers should consider what are the key subjects or concepts that readers will be looking for in the publication, and employ appropriate terminology.

Most websites are discovered through Web searches using search tools such as Google, Altavista and Yahoo. These operate by searching webpage titles as well as metadata, which is information about the site included within the coding of a website, rather than the text itself. Those publishing on the Web should include metadata to make sure their site is easily locatable. For example, the following line of HTML code shows the keywords incorporated into the Macquarie University homepage:

<META NAME=”Keywords” CONTENT=”Macquarie, University, Australia, teaching, learning, innovation, education, research”>

9. The formal parts of a book
There are no specific rules about what should be included in a book or the sequence of those parts. Not all books have the same parts, but the Style manual recommends the following:

• half-title page
  
  
• reverse of half-title page
  
  
• title page
  
  
• imprint page (bibliographical details, copyright notice, publisher’s name and address, list of editions or reprints, ISBN/ISSN, CIP, name of editor, designer, photographer, illustrator, printer’s imprint)
  
  
• foreword
  
  
• list of contents
  
  
• list of illustrations (plates, figures, diagrams, tables, maps)
  
  
• preface
  
  
• acknowledgments
  
  
• summary
  
  
• introduction
  
  
• text
  
  
• appendixes
  
  
• abbreviations or acronyms
  
  
• reference list, endnotes or bibliography
  
  
• index.
  

For reports and other major official publications, the normal sequence is:

• title page
  
  
• imprint page (copyright notice, ISBN/ISSN, CIP, disclaimer if any, printer’s imprint)
  
  
• letter of transmittal/Secretary’s statement
  
  
• terms of reference
  
  
• membership of reporting body
  
  
• list of contents
  
  
• abbreviations or acronyms
  
  
• summary of conclusions and recommendations/executive summary
  
  
• introduction
  
  
• report or text
  
  
• conclusions and recommendations in full
  
  
• appendixes
  
  
• references
  
  
• index.

Not all items in the above lists will appear in every publication.
See Chapter 13 in the Style manual for further information.

9.1 The parts explained

• The foreword, unlike the preface and the introduction, is outside the text. Generally it is written by someone other than the author, to briefly explain purpose and direction.
  
  
• The table, or list, of contents should set out the main sections of the preliminary pages, the text and the endmatter, followed either directly, or on the next right-hand page, by lists of plates, figures, diagrams, tables and maps, in that order. Subsections of the text may also be listed.
  
  
• In the preface, the author may state the purpose of the book and information about its preparation, including thanks and acknowledgments unless these are set out separately. A note should also be made of any new edition or reprint. In a series, the general editor may wish to write a preface.
  
  
• If the introduction relates to the purpose and production of the book, it should be numbered with the prelims in roman numerals. If it relates to the subject matter as part of the text, it should be numbered with arabic figures.
  
  
• Appendixes usually have additional information about topics covered in the main text.
  
  
• A bibliography and/or list of references may be presented as a continuous list or may be broken up into subject or other groupings.
  
  
• An index is an alphabetical listing of subjects, names, events and other key items contained in the text of a book.

10. Graphic material
Tables and illustrations provide effective ways of summarising or highlighting pieces of information in both print and electronic modes, making them particularly suitable for bimodal publications. See Chapter 19 of the Style manual for detailed comment and examples, and for the use of tables in screen layout.

10.1 Tables
Some points:

• Tables should be set out as clearly and simply as possible. Column headings should be appropriate and figures should tally.
  
  
• If there are only a few tables, they may be included in the copy exactly where they occur. Otherwise, they can be separated out and submitted as a batch of hard copy for the typesetter.
  
  
• Tables should always be numbered, and references to them in the text can then be made in terms of these numbers – for example, Table 8 rather than the above table. At NCELTR they are numbered sequentially throughout – for example, Table 18, Table 24 and so on, rather than separately for each chapter – for example, Table 2.6 for the sixth table in the second chapter. The table should appear as near as possible to where it is mentioned in the text.
  
  
• Any qualifying information following the heading, or notes after a table, should be clearly shown as belonging to the table and not to the text.
  
  
• Full stops are not used after headings for and within tables and figures.

10.2 Illustrations and captions
The preparation of photographs, illustrations and other art material such as graphs and maps is described in detail in the Style manual.
Discussion of the design and printing of illustrations forms an important part of the production process (see Section 6).

Illustrations are usually numbered as figures. At NCELTR they are numbered sequentially throughout. When a figure is referred to in the text, ‘Figure’ is not abbreviated – for example, In Figure 25 we see the scale … – but if the reference is in parentheses, the short form is used – for example, The scale (Fig 25) …

Sometimes, as well as the numbering sequence for figures, there can be separate numbering sequences for tables or for graphs, charts, maps etc.
Caption copy, usually provided by the author, should be edited to conform with the style of the text. It is important to check that:

• all tables, figures etc are correctly numbered
  
  
• the numbers match up with each reference to the tables and figures in the text
  
  
• the numbers and captions match up with those in the lists of tables and figures.

Captions are usually set in a smaller type size than the text and are usually in italics or bold. A caption does not require a full stop unless it includes a full sentence.

All graphs should be identifiable by title. To be fully comprehensible, both axes need to be adequately captioned, with each caption followed by the symbol of the units in which it is expressed, in parentheses.

11 Copyright and defamation
The following material is based on Chapter 22 of the Style manual, which recommends that authors, editors and printers seek advice from the Attorney-General’s Department when specific legal problems arise. However, the department cannot advise on publishing practice.

11.1 Copyright
The law of copyright in Australia, set out in the Copyright Act 1968 (as amended), confers certain rights on authors of original material. The merit of the work is not relevant: it may be a computer program, a table of figures, or a literary work. What matters for copyright is that the work be original – that is, the result of the author’s skill and labour. Copyright protects the work, but not the information and ideas in it.

The rights of copyright owners include the right to copy or reproduce the work in a material form, to publish it, to adapt or translate it, and to broadcast it. These rights arise as soon as the work is created. No application or registration is required. However, the symbol © must be displayed with the name of the copyright owner and the year of first publication.

The owner of copyright is usually the author of the material. However, if the author is an employee, the copyright owner is usually the employer unless there is an agreement to the contrary. Publishers own the copyright in the edition of works published by them, and permission must be sought from them before a work, or part of it, is reproduced, as well as permission from the owners of copyright in the artwork or text.

A copyright owner can assign the whole of the copyright to another person or can divide it up, or it can descend, on death, by will or intestacy.

Copyright continues to exist in a published work for 50 years after the author’s death, or, if the work is published after the author’s death, for 50 years after publication. The 50 years is calculated from the end of the relevant calendar year.

Copying a work, or a substantial part of a work, without the authorisation of the copyright owner is the most common form of infringement of copyright.

Under two international conventions, overseas works are protected in Australia under Australian law, and Australian works receive protection in other countries who are members of those conventions, under their law.

11.2 Electronic copyright
It is commonly assumed that material published on the World Wide Web is in the public domain and not governed by the same rules of copyright as other published material. For this reason extra care should be taken in protecting original material with a copyright notice, and ensuring that you are not making use of any electronic material that has been copyrighted.

Providing a link to someone else’s website will not normally infringe their copyright, but permission should be sought as a courtesy. The contents of any websites to which you have provided a link should be regularly checked, to make sure you are not giving implied endorsement to inappropriate content or material that infringes copyright.

The Copyright Act 1968 has been reformed to address the issue of electronic reproduction of material. The relevant Act is Copyright reform: ‘Copyright Amendment (Digital Agenda) Act 2000’.

11.3 Defamation
Defamation relates to any statement, spoken or written, which tends to lower a person or corporation in the estimation of ordinary reasonable people. The statement must be published to a third person, and liability for the defamation falls on the author, the publisher and the printer.

Defamation can occur even if it was not intended, or if a reasonable mistake was made, or if the person is taken to be referred to even though not identified by name.

There are four main defences that allow the publication of defamatory material: absolute privilege (statements made under parliamentary privilege); qualified privilege (where publication is not made with any improper motive or in bad faith); truth of the imputations held to arise from the published material; and comment on matters of public interest (so long as it is based on facts commonly accepted as true). However, the legal interpretation of these defences is restricted and complex.